2. Leader behavior
2.1 Charismatic leader
Idealized influence or Charismatic leader refers to leaders who act as charismatic role models, display a sense of power and confidence, make unconventional, high-impact decisions, and act according to deeply held values (Bass, 1985; Conger and Kanungo, 1987).
While such behaviors are not restricted to the top of the organization, they are more likely to
emerge among upper rather than middle managers (Shamir and Howell, 1999). Their
greater discretion and autonomy allows upper managers to follow personal values to a
large extent and to engage in innovative, unconventional activities. Also, upper
managers have the authority to initiate large-scale changes and to promote them
through charismatic action-taking. Accordingly, Waldman et al. (2004) found CEOs’
charismatic leadership to enhance strategic change at the company level.
Middle managers may find it more difficult to perform such behaviors. Constrained
by organizational regulations and limited in their authority to initiate far-reaching,
innovative decisions, middle managers’ charismatic appeal is likely to remain limited.
As Shamir and Howell (1999) argued, lower level leaders (such as middle managers)
“typically have a more limited span of discretion, and are more likely to adapt their
behaviors to the expectations of their superiors. Unless their superiors expect them to
behave in a charismatic manner, it may be very difficult for them to do so” (pp. 276-277).
Middle managers may nevertheless be able to attain idealized influence by setting a
personal example in daily interactions with followers (Rainey and Watson, 1996).
However, they usually lack upper managers’ opportunities for large-scale,
charis ...